What is the Cervix?
The cervix is the lower part of the uterus, which is a small, muscular organ located in the female pelvis. The cervix is the narrow, tubular passage that connects the uterus to the vagina.
During a menstrual period, the cervix opens slightly to allow the menstrual blood to flow out of the uterus and through the vagina. During childbirth, the cervix dilates or opens more to allow the baby to pass through.
The cervix also plays an important role in protecting the uterus and reproductive organs from infections. The mucus produced by the cervix helps to prevent bacteria and other pathogens from entering the uterus. The cervix also produces hormones that help to regulate the menstrual cycle and support pregnancy.
What is Cervical Cancer?
Cervical cancer is a type of cancer that occurs in the cells of the cervix, which is the lower part of the uterus that connects to the vagina. The vast majority of cervical cancers are caused by infection with the human papillomavirus (HPV), a common sexually transmitted virus.
Over time, the virus can cause changes in the cells of the cervix, which can eventually lead to cancer. Cervical cancer may not cause symptoms in its early stages, which is why regular screening tests, such as a Pap smear or HPV test, are important for detecting the disease early.
Types of Cervical Cancer
There are several types of cervical cancer, but the vast majority of cases are squamous cell carcinoma and adenocarcinoma.
Squamous cell carcinoma
This is the most common type of cervical cancer, accounting for about 80-90% of all cases. It starts in the thin, flat cells that line the outer surface of the cervix.
Adenocarcinoma
This type of cervical cancer starts in the glandular cells that line the inside of the cervix. Adenocarcinoma accounts for about 10-20% of all cervical cancers.
Adenosquamous carcinoma
This is a less common type of cervical cancer that has features of both squamous cell carcinoma and adenocarcinoma.
Small cell neuroendocrine carcinoma
This is a rare type of cervical cancer that starts in the nerve cells and hormone-producing cells of the cervix.
Other types of cervical cancer, such as clear cell carcinoma and glassy cell carcinoma, are very rare. The treatment and prognosis for cervical cancer may vary depending on the type and stage of cancer.
Causes of Cervical Cancer
The primary cause of cervical cancer is infection with certain types of human papillomavirus (HPV), which is a sexually transmitted virus. HPV is a very common virus, and most people who are infected with it never develop cervical cancer. However, certain high-risk strains of HPV can cause changes to the cells in the cervix that may eventually lead to cancer.
In addition to HPV, there are other factors that may increase the risk of developing cervical cancer, including:
Weakened immune system
Women with weakened immune systems, such as those with HIV/AIDS or those taking immunosuppressive drugs, may be at a higher risk of developing cervical cancer.
Smoking
Women who smoke are more likely to develop cervical cancer than those who do not smoke.
Long-term use of oral contraceptives
Women who have taken oral contraceptives for five or more years may have a slightly higher risk of developing cervical cancer.
Family history
Women with a family history of cervical cancer may be at a higher risk of developing the disease.
Other sexually transmitted infections
Women who have other sexually transmitted infections, such as chlamydia or gonorrhoea, may have an increased risk of developing cervical cancer.
Regular screening with Pap smears or HPV tests, and getting the HPV vaccine, can help detect cervical cancer early or prevent it from developing in the first place.
Symptoms of Cervical Cancer
In the early stages, cervical cancer often does not cause any noticeable symptoms. However, as cancer grows and spreads, it may cause a variety of symptoms, including:
- Abnormal vaginal bleeding: This is the most common symptom of cervical cancer. It may occur between menstrual periods, after sex, or after menopause.
- Pelvic pain: Women with cervical cancer may experience pain in the pelvis or lower back.
- Pain during sex: Women with cervical cancer may experience pain or discomfort during sex.
- Vaginal discharge: Women with cervical cancer may have a watery, bloody, or foul-smelling vaginal discharge.
- Urinary problems: Women with advanced cervical cancer may experience urinary incontinence or have difficulty urinating.
- Swelling of the legs: Women with advanced cervical cancer may experience swelling in the legs.
Many of these symptoms can be caused by conditions other than cervical cancer. However, if you experience any of these symptoms, you should talk to your doctor for an evaluation.
Diagnoses for Cervical Cancer
The diagnosis of cervical cancer typically involves a combination of physical exams, imaging tests, and laboratory tests. Here are some of the diagnostic tests commonly used for cervical cancer:
Pap test:
This is a screening test that involves collecting a sample of cells from the cervix and examining them for any abnormalities.
HPV test:
This is another screening test that detects the presence of the human papillomavirus (HPV) in the cervical cells. Certain high-risk types of HPV can cause cervical cancer.
Colposcopy:
This is a procedure that involves using a special microscope called a colposcope to examine the cervix and vagina for abnormalities.
Biopsy:
If abnormal cells are found during a Pap smear or colposcopy, a biopsy may be performed to remove a small sample of tissue for further examination.
Imaging tests:
Imaging tests, such as X-rays, CT scans, MRI scans, and PET scans, may be used to determine the extent of cancer and whether it has spread to other parts of the body.
Staging:
Once a diagnosis of cervical cancer has been confirmed, staging tests may be performed to determine the extent of cancer and help guide treatment decisions.
Preventions and Treatments for Cervical Cancer
Preventions to be considered are as follows
There are several steps women can take to reduce their risk of developing cervical cancer:
- Get vaccinated: The HPV vaccine is highly effective at preventing infection with the high-risk strains of HPV that can cause cervical cancer. The vaccine is recommended for both boys and girls, starting at age 11 or 12, and can be given up to age 45.
- Practice safe sex: Using condoms during sex can help reduce the risk of HPV and other sexually transmitted infections.
- Get regular Pap smears and/or HPV tests: These screening tests can help detect abnormal cervical cells before they develop into cancer. The frequency of these tests depends on your age and other risk factors.
- Don’t smoke: Smoking is a risk factor for cervical cancer, so quitting smoking can help reduce your risk.
- Limit your number of sexual partners: Having multiple sexual partners can increase the risk of HPV and other sexually transmitted infections.
- Practice good hygiene: Keeping the genital area clean and dry may help reduce the risk of infection.
- Eat a healthy diet: A diet rich in fruits, vegetables, and whole grains may help reduce the risk of cervical cancer.
Treatments required for Cervical Cancer
The treatment for cervical cancer depends on several factors, including the stage of cancer, the size and location of the tumour, and the woman’s overall health. Here are some of the common treatments used for cervical cancer:
Surgery is often used to remove early-stage cervical cancer. The type of surgery used depends on the size and location of the tumour, but it may involve removing the cervix and/or the uterus (hysterectomy) or removing only the cancerous tissue (cone biopsy).
For cancer that has not spread beyond the cervix, these procedures are often used:
- Conization: The use of the same procedure as a cone biopsy (see Diagnosis) to remove all of the abnormal tissue. It can be used to remove cervical cancer that can only be seen with a microscope, called microinvasive cancer.
- Loop electrosurgical excision procedure (LEEP): The use of an electrical current passed through a thin wire hook. The hook removes the tissue. It can be used to remove microinvasive cervical cancer.
- Hysterectomy: The removal of the uterus and cervix. A hysterectomy can be either simple or radical. A simple hysterectomy is the removal of the uterus and cervix. A radical hysterectomy is the removal of the uterus, cervix, upper vagina, and the tissue around the cervix. A radical hysterectomy also includes an extensive pelvic lymph node dissection, which means lymph nodes are removed. This procedure can be done using a large cut in the abdomen, called laparotomy, or using smaller cuts, called laparoscopy.
Radiation therapy uses high-energy radiation to kill cancer cells. It may be used alone or in combination with other treatments, such as surgery or chemotherapy.
Chemotherapy uses drugs to kill cancer cells. It may be used alone or in combination with other treatments, such as radiation therapy.
Targeted therapy is a newer type of cancer treatment that uses drugs to target specific proteins or other molecules that are involved in the growth and spread of cancer cells.
Immunotherapy uses the body’s natural defenses to fight cancer by improving your immune system’s ability to attack cancer cells.
The immune checkpoint inhibitor pembrolizumab (Keytruda) is used to treat cervical cancer that has recurred or spread to other parts of the body during or after treatment with chemotherapy. It may also be used in combination with chemotherapy with or without in people with recurrent or metastatic cervical cancer whose tumours express PD-L1. Some cancer cells express the PD-L1 protein, which binds to the PD-1 protein on T cells. T cells are immune system cells that kill certain other cells, like cancer cells. When the PD-1 and PD-L1 proteins bind, the T cell does not attack the cancer cell. Pembrolizumab is a PD-1 inhibitor, so it blocks the binding between PD-1 and PD-L1, which allows the T cells to find and attack the cancer cells.
Denvax Immunotherapy:
Denvax is cancer immunotherapy. It helps in boosting the immune system against cancer, mostly solid tumours. Denvax is targeted therapy and comes under the 4th modality of cancer treatment called cancer Immunotherapy.
Dendritic cells are cells of the immune system that prevent the development of cancer. Denvax treatment is customized dendritic cell-based cancer immunotherapy.
The choice of treatment depends on the stage of cancer and the woman’s overall health. Early-stage cervical cancer is often treated with surgery, while more advanced cancers may require a combination of surgery, radiation therapy, and chemotherapy. In some cases, women may receive palliative care to help manage symptoms and improve their quality of life. It’s important to talk to your doctor about the best treatment options for your individual situation.
References:
What is the Cervix?
The cervix is the lower part of the uterus, which is a small, muscular organ located in the female pelvis. The cervix is the narrow, tubular passage that connects the uterus to the vagina.
During a menstrual period, the cervix opens slightly to allow the menstrual blood to flow out of the uterus and through the vagina. During childbirth, the cervix dilates or opens more to allow the baby to pass through.
The cervix also plays an important role in protecting the uterus and reproductive organs from infections. The mucus produced by the cervix helps to prevent bacteria and other pathogens from entering the uterus. The cervix also produces hormones that help to regulate the menstrual cycle and support pregnancy.
What is Cervical Cancer?
Cervical cancer is a type of cancer that occurs in the cells of the cervix, which is the lower part of the uterus that connects to the vagina. The vast majority of cervical cancers are caused by infection with the human papillomavirus (HPV), a common sexually transmitted virus.
Over time, the virus can cause changes in the cells of the cervix, which can eventually lead to cancer. Cervical cancer may not cause symptoms in its early stages, which is why regular screening tests, such as a Pap smear or HPV test, are important for detecting the disease early.
Types of Cervical Cancer
There are several types of cervical cancer, but the vast majority of cases are squamous cell carcinoma and adenocarcinoma.
Squamous cell carcinoma
This is the most common type of cervical cancer, accounting for about 80-90% of all cases. It starts in the thin, flat cells that line the outer surface of the cervix.
Adenocarcinoma
This type of cervical cancer starts in the glandular cells that line the inside of the cervix. Adenocarcinoma accounts for about 10-20% of all cervical cancers.
Adenosquamous carcinoma
This is a less common type of cervical cancer that has features of both squamous cell carcinoma and adenocarcinoma.
Small cell neuroendocrine carcinoma
This is a rare type of cervical cancer that starts in the nerve cells and hormone-producing cells of the cervix.
Other types of cervical cancer, such as clear cell carcinoma and glassy cell carcinoma, are very rare. The treatment and prognosis for cervical cancer may vary depending on the type and stage of cancer.
Causes of Cervical Cancer
The primary cause of cervical cancer is infection with certain types of human papillomavirus (HPV), which is a sexually transmitted virus. HPV is a very common virus, and most people who are infected with it never develop cervical cancer. However, certain high-risk strains of HPV can cause changes to the cells in the cervix that may eventually lead to cancer.
In addition to HPV, there are other factors that may increase the risk of developing cervical cancer, including:
Weakened immune system
Women with weakened immune systems, such as those with HIV/AIDS or those taking immunosuppressive drugs, may be at a higher risk of developing cervical cancer.
Smoking
Women who smoke are more likely to develop cervical cancer than those who do not smoke.
Long-term use of oral contraceptives
Women who have taken oral contraceptives for five or more years may have a slightly higher risk of developing cervical cancer.
Family history
Women with a family history of cervical cancer may be at a higher risk of developing the disease.
Other sexually transmitted infections
Women who have other sexually transmitted infections, such as chlamydia or gonorrhoea, may have an increased risk of developing cervical cancer.
Regular screening with Pap smears or HPV tests, and getting the HPV vaccine, can help detect cervical cancer early or prevent it from developing in the first place.
Symptoms of Cervical Cancer
In the early stages, cervical cancer often does not cause any noticeable symptoms. However, as cancer grows and spreads, it may cause a variety of symptoms, including:
- Abnormal vaginal bleeding: This is the most common symptom of cervical cancer. It may occur between menstrual periods, after sex, or after menopause.
- Pelvic pain: Women with cervical cancer may experience pain in the pelvis or lower back.
- Pain during sex: Women with cervical cancer may experience pain or discomfort during sex.
- Vaginal discharge: Women with cervical cancer may have a watery, bloody, or foul-smelling vaginal discharge.
- Urinary problems: Women with advanced cervical cancer may experience urinary incontinence or have difficulty urinating.
- Swelling of the legs: Women with advanced cervical cancer may experience swelling in the legs.
Many of these symptoms can be caused by conditions other than cervical cancer. However, if you experience any of these symptoms, you should talk to your doctor for an evaluation.
Diagnoses for Cervical Cancer
The diagnosis of cervical cancer typically involves a combination of physical exams, imaging tests, and laboratory tests. Here are some of the diagnostic tests commonly used for cervical cancer:
Pap test:
This is a screening test that involves collecting a sample of cells from the cervix and examining them for any abnormalities.
HPV test:
This is another screening test that detects the presence of the human papillomavirus (HPV) in the cervical cells. Certain high-risk types of HPV can cause cervical cancer.
Colposcopy:
This is a procedure that involves using a special microscope called a colposcope to examine the cervix and vagina for abnormalities.
Biopsy:
If abnormal cells are found during a Pap smear or colposcopy, a biopsy may be performed to remove a small sample of tissue for further examination.
Imaging tests:
Imaging tests, such as X-rays, CT scans, MRI scans, and PET scans, may be used to determine the extent of cancer and whether it has spread to other parts of the body.
Staging:
Once a diagnosis of cervical cancer has been confirmed, staging tests may be performed to determine the extent of cancer and help guide treatment decisions.
Preventions and Treatments for Cervical Cancer
Preventions to be considered are as follows
There are several steps women can take to reduce their risk of developing cervical cancer:
- Get vaccinated: The HPV vaccine is highly effective at preventing infection with the high-risk strains of HPV that can cause cervical cancer. The vaccine is recommended for both boys and girls, starting at age 11 or 12, and can be given up to age 45.
- Practice safe sex: Using condoms during sex can help reduce the risk of HPV and other sexually transmitted infections.
- Get regular Pap smears and/or HPV tests: These screening tests can help detect abnormal cervical cells before they develop into cancer. The frequency of these tests depends on your age and other risk factors.
- Don’t smoke: Smoking is a risk factor for cervical cancer, so quitting smoking can help reduce your risk.
- Limit your number of sexual partners: Having multiple sexual partners can increase the risk of HPV and other sexually transmitted infections.
- Practice good hygiene: Keeping the genital area clean and dry may help reduce the risk of infection.
- Eat a healthy diet: A diet rich in fruits, vegetables, and whole grains may help reduce the risk of cervical cancer.
Treatments required for Cervical Cancer
The treatment for cervical cancer depends on several factors, including the stage of cancer, the size and location of the tumour, and the woman’s overall health. Here are some of the common treatments used for cervical cancer:
Surgery is often used to remove early-stage cervical cancer. The type of surgery used depends on the size and location of the tumour, but it may involve removing the cervix and/or the uterus (hysterectomy) or removing only the cancerous tissue (cone biopsy).
For cancer that has not spread beyond the cervix, these procedures are often used:
- Conization: The use of the same procedure as a cone biopsy (see Diagnosis) to remove all of the abnormal tissue. It can be used to remove cervical cancer that can only be seen with a microscope, called microinvasive cancer.
- Loop electrosurgical excision procedure (LEEP): The use of an electrical current passed through a thin wire hook. The hook removes the tissue. It can be used to remove microinvasive cervical cancer.
- Hysterectomy: The removal of the uterus and cervix. A hysterectomy can be either simple or radical. A simple hysterectomy is the removal of the uterus and cervix. A radical hysterectomy is the removal of the uterus, cervix, upper vagina, and the tissue around the cervix. A radical hysterectomy also includes an extensive pelvic lymph node dissection, which means lymph nodes are removed. This procedure can be done using a large cut in the abdomen, called laparotomy, or using smaller cuts, called laparoscopy.
Radiation therapy uses high-energy radiation to kill cancer cells. It may be used alone or in combination with other treatments, such as surgery or chemotherapy.
Chemotherapy uses drugs to kill cancer cells. It may be used alone or in combination with other treatments, such as radiation therapy.
Targeted therapy is a newer type of cancer treatment that uses drugs to target specific proteins or other molecules that are involved in the growth and spread of cancer cells.
Immunotherapy uses the body’s natural defenses to fight cancer by improving your immune system’s ability to attack cancer cells.
The immune checkpoint inhibitor pembrolizumab (Keytruda) is used to treat cervical cancer that has recurred or spread to other parts of the body during or after treatment with chemotherapy. It may also be used in combination with chemotherapy with or without bevacizumab in people with recurrent or metastatic cervical cancer whose tumours express PD-L1. Some cancer cells express the PD-L1 protein, which binds to the PD-1 protein on T cells. T cells are immune system cells that kill certain other cells, like cancer cells. When the PD-1 and PD-L1 proteins bind, the T cell does not attack the cancer cell. Pembrolizumab is a PD-1 inhibitor, so it blocks the binding between PD-1 and PD-L1, which allows the T cells to find and attack the cancer cells.
Denvax Immunotherapy:
Denvax is cancer immunotherapy. It helps in boosting the immune system against cancer, mostly solid tumours. Denvax is targeted therapy and comes under the 4th modality of cancer treatment called cancer Immunotherapy.
Dendritic cells are cells of the immune system that prevent the development of cancer. Denvax treatment is customized dendritic cell-based cancer immunotherapy
The choice of treatment depends on the stage of cancer and the woman’s overall health. Early-stage cervical cancer is often treated with surgery, while more advanced cancers may require a combination of surgery, radiation therapy, and chemotherapy. In some cases, women may receive palliative care to help manage symptoms and improve their quality of life. It’s important to talk to your doctor about the best treatment options for your individual situation.
References:
